Database Abstraction Layer¶

Overview¶

The components under the Phalcon\Db namespace are the ones responsible for powering the Phalcon\Mvc\Model class - the Model in MVC for the framework. It consists of an independent high-level abstraction layer for database systems completely written in C.

This component allows for a lower level of database manipulation than using traditional models.

Adapters¶

This component makes use of adapters to encapsulate specific database system details. Phalcon uses PDO to connect to databases. The following database engines are supported:

Class	Description
Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Mysql	Is the world's most used relational database management system (RDBMS) that runs as a server providing multi-user access to several databases
Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Postgresql	PostgreSQL is a powerful, open-source relational database system. It has more than 15 years of active development and a proven architecture that has earned it a strong reputation for reliability, data integrity, and correctness.
Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Sqlite	SQLite is a software library that implements a self-contained, serverless, zero-configuration, transactional SQL database engine

Constants¶

The Phalcon\Db\Enum class exposes several constants that can be used on the DB layer. - FETCH_ASSOC = \Pdo::FETCH_ASSOC - FETCH_BOTH = \Pdo::FETCH_BOTH - FETCH_BOUND = \Pdo::FETCH_BOUND - FETCH_CLASS = \Pdo::FETCH_CLASS - FETCH_CLASSTYPE = \Pdo::FETCH_CLASSTYPE - FETCH_COLUMN = \Pdo::FETCH_COLUMN - FETCH_FUNC = \Pdo::FETCH_FUNC - FETCH_GROUP = \Pdo::FETCH_GROUP - FETCH_INTO = \Pdo::FETCH_INTO - FETCH_KEY_PAIR = \Pdo::FETCH_KEY_PAIR - FETCH_LAZY = \Pdo::FETCH_LAZY - FETCH_NAMED = \Pdo::FETCH_NAMED - FETCH_NUM = \Pdo::FETCH_NUM - FETCH_OBJ = \Pdo::FETCH_OBJ - FETCH_PROPS_LATE = \Pdo::FETCH_PROPS_LATE - FETCH_SERIALIZE = \Pdo::FETCH_SERIALIZE - FETCH_UNIQUE = \Pdo::FETCH_UNIQUE

Additional constants are available in the Phalcon\Db\Column object. This object is used to describe a column (or field) in a database table. These constants also define which types are supported by the ORM.

Bind Types

Type	Description
`BIND_PARAM_BLOB`	Blob
`BIND_PARAM_BOOL`	Bool
`BIND_PARAM_DECIMAL`	Decimal
`BIND_PARAM_INT`	Integer
`BIND_PARAM_NULL`	Null
`BIND_PARAM_STR`	String
`BIND_SKIP`	Skip binding

Column Types

Type	Description
`TYPE_BIGINTEGER`	Big integer
`TYPE_BINARY`	Binary
`TYPE_BIT`	Bit
`TYPE_BLOB`	Blob
`TYPE_BOOLEAN`	Boolean
`TYPE_CHAR`	Char
`TYPE_DATE`	Date
`TYPE_DATETIME`	Datetime
`TYPE_DECIMAL`	Decimal
`TYPE_DOUBLE`	Double
`TYPE_ENUM`	Enum
`TYPE_FLOAT`	Float
`TYPE_INTEGER`	Integer
`TYPE_JSON`	JSON
`TYPE_JSONB`	JSONB
`TYPE_LONGBLOB`	Long Blob
`TYPE_LONGTEXT`	Long Text
`TYPE_MEDIUMBLOB`	Medium Blob
`TYPE_MEDIUMINTEGER`	Medium Integer
`TYPE_MEDIUMTEXT`	Medium Text
`TYPE_SMALLINTEGER`	Small Integer
`TYPE_TEXT`	Text
`TYPE_TIME`	Time
`TYPE_TIMESTAMP`	Timestamp
`TYPE_TINYBLOB`	Tiny Blob
`TYPE_TINYINTEGER`	Tiny Integer
`TYPE_TINYTEXT`	Tiny Text
`TYPE_VARBINARY`	Varbinary
`TYPE_VARCHAR`	Varchar

NOTE

Depending on your RDBMS, certain types will not be available (e.g. JSON is not supported for Sqlite).

Methods¶

public function addColumn(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    ColumnInterface $column
): bool

Adds a column to a table

public function addIndex(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName,
    IndexInterface $index
): bool

Adds an index to a table

public function addForeignKey(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    ReferenceInterface $reference
): bool

Adds a foreign key to a table

public function addPrimaryKey(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    IndexInterface $index
): bool

Adds a primary key to a table

public function affectedRows(): int

Returns the number of affected rows by the last INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE reported by the database system

public function begin(
    bool $nesting = true
): bool

Starts a transaction in the connection

public function close(): void

Closes active connection returning success. Phalcon automatically closes and destroys active connections

public function commit(
    bool $nesting = true
): bool

Commits the active transaction in the connection

public function connect(
    array $descriptor = []
): void

This method is automatically called in Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\AbstractPdo constructor. Call it when you need to restore a database connection

public function createSavepoint(
    string $name
): bool

Creates a new savepoint

public function createTable(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    array $definition
): bool

Creates a table

public function createView(
    string $viewName, 
    array $definition, 
    string $schemaName = null
): bool

Creates a view

public function delete(
    mixed $table, 
    string $whereCondition = null, 
    array $placeholders = [], 
    array $dataTypes = []
): bool

Deletes data from a table using custom RDBMS SQL syntax

public function describeColumns(
    string $table, 
    string $schema = null
): ColumnInterface[]

Returns an array of Phalcon\Db\Column objects describing a table

public function describeIndexes(
    string $table, 
        string $schema = null
): IndexInterface[]

Lists table indexes

public function describeReferences(
    string $table, 
    string $schema = null
): ReferenceInterface[]

Lists table references

public function dropColumn(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    string $columnName
): bool

Drops a column from a table

public function dropForeignKey(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    string $referenceName
): bool

Drops a foreign key from a table

public function dropIndex(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    string $indexName
): bool

Drop an index from a table

public function dropPrimaryKey(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName
): bool

Drops primary key from a table

public function dropTable(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName = null, 
    bool $ifExists = true
): bool

Drops a table from a schema/database

public function dropView(
    string $viewName, 
    string $schemaName = null, 
    bool $ifExists = true
): bool

Drops a view

public function escapeIdentifier(
    mixed identifier
): string

Escapes a column/table/schema name.

public function escapeString(string $str): string

Escapes a value to avoid SQL injections

public function execute(
    string $sqlStatement, 
    array $bindParams = [], 
    array $bindTypes = []
): bool

Sends SQL statements to the database server returning the success state. Use this method only when the SQL statement sent to the server does not return any rows

public function fetchAll(
    string $sqlQuery, 
    int $fetchMode = 2, 
    array $bindParams = [], 
    array $bindTypes = []
): array

Dumps the complete result of a query into an array

public function fetchColumn(
    string $sqlQuery, 
    array $placeholders = [], 
    mixed $column = 0
): string | bool

Returns the nth field of the first row in a SQL query result

$invoicesCount = $connection
    ->fetchColumn('SELECT count(*) FROM co_invoices')
print_r($invoicesCount)

$invoice = $connection->fetchColumn(
    'SELECT inv_id, inv_title 
    FROM co_invoices
    ORDER BY inv_created_at DESC',
    1
)
print_r($invoice)

public function fetchOne(
    string $sqlQuery, 
    int $fetchMode = 2, 
    array $bindParams = [], 
    array $bindTypes = []
): array

Returns the first row in an SQL query result

public function forUpdate(
    string $sqlQuery
): string

Returns a SQL modified with a FOR UPDATE clause

public function getColumnDefinition(
    ColumnInterface $column
): string

Returns the SQL column definition from a column

public function getColumnList(
    mixed $columnList
): string

Gets a list of columns

public function getConnectionId(): string

Gets the active connection unique identifier

public function getDefaultValue(): RawValue

Return the default value to make the RBDM use the default value declared in the table definition

public function getDescriptor(): array

Return descriptor used to connect to the active database

public function getDialect(): DialectInterface

Returns internal dialect instance

public function getDialectType(): string

Returns the name of the dialect used

public function getDefaultIdValue(): RawValue

Return the default identity value to insert in an identity column

public function getErrorInfo(): array

Return the last error information

public function getInternalHandler(): mixed

Return internal PDO handler

public function getNestedTransactionSavepointName(): string

Returns the savepoint name to use for nested transactions

public function getRealSQLStatement(): string

Active SQL statement in the object without replacing bound parameters

public function getSQLStatement(): string

Active SQL statement in the object

public function getSQLBindTypes(): array

Active SQL statement in the object

public function getSQLVariables(): array

Active SQL statement in the object

public function getType(): string

Returns the type of database system the adapter is used for

public function insert(
    string $table, 
    array $values, 
    mixed $fields = null, 
    mixed $dataTypes = null
): bool

Inserts data into a table using custom RDBMS SQL syntax

public function insertAsDict(
    string $table, 
    mixed $data, 
    mixed $dataTypes = null
): bool

Inserts data into a table using custom RBDM SQL syntax

$success = $connection->insertAsDict(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_cst_id' => 1,
        'inv_title'  => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ]
)

// SQL
// INSERT INTO `co_invoices` 
//     ( `inv_cst_id`, `inv_title` ) 
// VALUES 
//     ( 1, 'Invoice for ACME Inc.' )

public function isNestedTransactionsWithSavepoints(): bool

Returns if nested transactions should use savepoints

public function isUnderTransaction(): bool

Check whether the connection is under a database transaction

public function lastInsertId(
    mixed $sequenceName = null
): string | bool

Returns insert id for the auto_increment column inserted in the last SQL statement

public function limit(
    string $sqlQuery, 
    int $number
): string

Appends a LIMIT clause to sqlQuery argument

public function listTables(
    string $schemaName = null
): array

List all tables on a database

public function listViews(
    string $schemaName = null
): array

List all views on a database

public function modifyColumn(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName, 
    ColumnInterface $column, 
    ColumnInterface $currentColumn = null
): bool

Modifies a table column based on a definition

public function query(
    string $sqlStatement, 
    array $bindParams = [], 
    array $bindTypes = []
): ResultInterface | bool

Sends SQL statements to the database server returning the success state. Use this method only when the SQL statement sent to the server returns rows

public function releaseSavepoint(
    string $name
): bool

Releases given savepoint

public function rollback(
    bool $nesting = true
): bool

Rollbacks the active transaction in the connection

public function rollbackSavepoint(
    string $name
): bool

Rollbacks given savepoint

public function sharedLock(
    string $sqlQuery
): string

Returns a SQL modified with a LOCK IN SHARE MODE clause

public function setNestedTransactionsWithSavepoints(
    bool $nestedTransactionsWithSavepoints
): AdapterInterface

Set if nested transactions should use savepoints

public function supportsDefaultValue(): bool

Check whether the database system supports a default value

public function supportSequences(): bool

Check whether the database system requires a sequence to produce auto-numeric values

public function tableExists(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName = null
): bool

Generates SQL checking for the existence of a schema.table

public function tableOptions(
    string $tableName, 
    string $schemaName = null
): array

Gets creation options from a table

public function update(
    string $table, 
    mixed $fields, 
    mixed $values, 
    mixed $whereCondition = null, 
    mixed $dataTypes = null
): bool

Updates data on a table using custom RDBMS SQL syntax

public function updateAsDict(
    string $table, 
    mixed $data, 
    mixed $whereCondition = null, 
    mixed $dataTypes = null
): bool

Updates data on a table using custom RBDM SQL syntax. Another more convenient syntax

$success = $connection->updateAsDict(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_title' => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    'inv_id = 1'
)

// SQL
// UPDATE `co_invoices` 
// SET    `inv_title` = 'Invoice for ACME Inc.' 
// WHERE   inv_id = 1

public function useExplicitIdValue(): bool

Check whether the database system requires an explicit value for identity columns

public function viewExists(
    string $viewName, 
    string $schemaName = null
): bool

Generates SQL checking for the existence of a schema view

Custom¶

The Phalcon\Db\AdapterInterface interface must be implemented to create your database adapters or extend the existing ones. Additionally, you can extend the Phalcon\Db\AbstractAdapter that already has some implementation for your custom adapter.

Escaping¶

Escaping identifiers is enabled by default. However, if you need to disable this feature, you can do so using the setup() method:

<?php

\Phalcon\Db::setup(
    [
        'escapeIdentifiers' => false,
    ]
);

Factory¶

`newInstance()`¶

Although all adapter classes can be instantiated using the new keyword, Phalcon offers the Phalcon\Db\Adapter\PdoFactory class, so that you can easily instantiate PDO adapter instances. All the above adapters are registered in the factory and lazy loaded when called. The factory allows you to register additional (custom) adapter classes. The only thing to consider is choosing the name of the adapter in comparison to the existing ones. If you define the same name, you will overwrite the built-in one. The objects are cached in the factory so if you call the newInstance() method with the same parameters during the same request, you will get the same object back.

The reserved names are:

Name	Adapter
`mysql`	Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Mysql
`postgresql`	Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Postgresql
`sqlite`	Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Sqlite

The example below shows how you can create a MySQL adapter with the new keyword or the factory:

<?php

use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\MySQL;

$connection = new MySQL(
    [
        'host'     => 'localhost',
        'username' => 'root',
        'password' => '',
        'dbname'   => 'test',
    ]
);

<?php

use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\PdoFactory;

$factory    = new PdoFactory();
$connection = $factory
    ->newInstance(
        'mysql',
        [
            'host'     => 'localhost',
            'username' => 'root',
            'password' => '',
            'dbname'   => 'test',
        ]
    )
;

`load()`¶

You can also use the load() method to create an adapter using a configuration object or an array. The example below uses an ini file to instantiate the database connection using load(). The load() method accepts a Phalcon\Config\Config object or an array with two elements: the name of the adapter (adapter) and options for the adapter (options).

[database]
adapter = mysql
options.host = DATA_MYSQL_HOST
options.username = DATA_MYSQL_USER
options.password = DATA_MYSQL_PASS
options.dbname = DATA_MYSQL_NAME
options.port = DATA_MYSQL_PORT
options.charset = DATA_MYSQL_CHARSET

<?php

use Phalcon\Config\Adapter\Ini;
use Phalcon\Di\Di;
use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\PdoFactory;

$container = new Di();

$config = new Ini('config.ini');

$container->set('config', $config);

$container->set(
    'db', 
    function () {
        return (new PdoFactory())->load($this->config->database);
    }
);

Dialects¶

Built In¶

Phalcon encapsulates the specific details of each database engine in dialects. Phalcon\Db\Dialect provides common functions and SQL generators to the adapters.

Class	Description
Phalcon\Db\Dialect\Mysql	SQL specific dialect for MySQL database system
Phalcon\Db\Dialect\Postgresql	SQL specific dialect for PostgreSQL database system
Phalcon\Db\Dialect\Sqlite	SQL specific dialect for SQLite database system

Custom¶

The Phalcon\Db\DialectInterface interface must be implemented to create your database dialects or extend the existing ones. You can also enhance your current dialect by adding more commands/methods that PHQL will understand. For instance, when using the MySQL adapter, you might want to allow PHQL to recognize the MATCH ... AGAINST ... syntax. We associate that syntax with MATCH_AGAINST

We instantiate the dialect. We add the custom function so that PHQL understands what to do when it finds it during the parsing process. In the example below, we register a new custom function called MATCH_AGAINST. After that, all we have to do is add the customized dialect object to our connection.

<?php

use Phalcon\Db\Dialect\MySQL as SqlDialect;
use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\MySQL as Connection;

$dialect = new SqlDialect();

$dialect->registerCustomFunction(
    'MATCH_AGAINST',
    function ($dialect, $expression) {
        $arguments = $expression['arguments'];
        return sprintf(
            ' MATCH (%s) AGAINST (%s)',
            $dialect->getSqlExpression($arguments[0]),
            $dialect->getSqlExpression($arguments[1])
         );
    }
);

$connection = new Connection(
    [
        'host'          => 'localhost',
        'username'      => 'root',
        'password'      => '',
        'dbname'        => 'test',
        'dialectClass'  => $dialect,
    ]
);

We can now use this new function in PHQL, which in turn will translate it to the proper SQL syntax:

<?php

$phql = '
  SELECT *
  FROM   Invoices
  WHERE  MATCH_AGAINST(title, :pattern:)';

$posts = $modelsManager->executeQuery(
    $phql,
    [
        'pattern' => $pattern,
    ]
);

NOTE

There are more examples of how to extend PHQL in the PHQL document.

Connect¶

To create a connection it's necessary to instantiate the adapter class. It only requires an array with the connection parameters. The example below shows how to create a connection passing both required and optional parameters:

Adapter	Parameter	Status
`MySQL`	`host`	required
	`username`	required
	`password`	required
	`dbname`	required
	`persistent`	optional
`PostgreSQL`	`host`	required
	`username`	required
	`password`	required
	`dbname`	required
	`schema`	optional
`Sqlite`	`dbname`	required

Connecting to each adapter can be achieved by either the factory as demonstrated above or by passing the relevant options to the constructor of each class.

<?php

use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Mysql;
use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Postgresql;
use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Sqlite;

$config = [
    'host'     => '127.0.0.1',
    'username' => 'mike',
    'password' => 'sigma',
    'dbname'   => 'test_db',
];

$connection = new Mysql($config);

$config = [
    'host'     => 'localhost',
    'username' => 'postgres',
    'password' => 'secret1',
    'dbname'   => 'template',
];

$connection = new Postgresql($config);

$config = [
    'dbname' => '/path/to/database.db',
];
$connection = new Sqlite($config);

Additional PDO options

You can set PDO options at connection time by passing the parameters options:

<?php

use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Mysql;

$connection = new Mysql(
    [
        'host'     => 'localhost',
        'username' => 'root',
        'password' => 'sigma',
        'dbname'   => 'test_db',
        'options'  => [
            PDO::MYSQL_ATTR_INIT_COMMAND => "SET NAMES 'UTF8'",
            PDO::ATTR_CASE               => PDO::CASE_LOWER,
        ]
    ]
);

Create¶

To insert a row in the database, you can use raw SQL or use the methods presented by the adapter:

<?php

$sql     = "
INSERT INTO `co_invoices` 
    ( `inv_cst_id`, `inv_title` ) 
VALUES 
    ( 1, 'Invoice for ACME Inc.' )
";
$success = $connection->execute($sql);

Raw SQL

<?php

$sql     = '
INSERT INTO `co_invoices` 
    ( `inv_cst_id`, `inv_title` ) 
VALUES 
    ( ?, ? )
';
$success = $connection->execute(
    $sql,
    [
        1,
        'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ]
);

Placeholders

<?php

$success = $connection->insert(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        1,
        'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    [
        'inv_cst_id',
        'inv_title', 
    ]
);

Dynamic generation

<?php

$success = $connection->insertAsDict(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_cst_id' => 1,
        'inv_title'  => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ]
);

Dynamic generation (alternative syntax)

Update¶

To update a row in the database, you can use raw SQL or use the methods presented by the adapter:

<?php

$sql     = "
UPDATE 
    `co_invoices` 
SET 
    `inv_cst_id`= 1, 
    `inv_title` = 'Invoice for ACME Inc.'
WHERE
    `inv_id` = 4
";
$success = $connection->execute($sql);

Raw SQL

<?php

$sql     = "
UPDATE 
    `co_invoices` 
SET 
    `inv_cst_id`= ?, 
    `inv_title` = ?
WHERE
    `inv_id` = ?
";
$success = $connection->execute(
    $sql,
    [
        1,
        'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
        4,
    ]
);

Placeholders

<?php

$success = $connection->update(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_cst_id',
        'inv_title',
    ],
    [
        1,
        'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    'inv_id = 4'
);

Dynamic generation

NOTE

With the syntax above, the variables for the where part of the update (inv_id = 4) are not escaped!

<?php

$success = $connection->updateAsDict(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_cst_id' => 1,
        'inv_title'  => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    'inv_id = 4'
);

Dynamic generation (alternative syntax)

NOTE

With the syntax above, the variables for the where part of the update (inv_id = 4) are not escaped!

 With conditionals escaped

name=__codelineno-88-1 href=#__codelineno-88-1><?php class=nv>$success = $connection->update( 'co_invoices', [ 'inv_cst_id', 'inv_title', ], [ 1, 'Invoice for ACME Inc.', ], [ 'conditions' => 'id = ?', 'bind'       => [ 4 ], 'bindTypes'  => [ \PDO::PARAM_INT ], ] class=p>);
 
<?php

$success = $connection->updateAsDict(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        'inv_cst_id' => 1,
        'inv_title'  => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    [
        'conditions' => 'id = ?',
        'bind'       => [
            4
        ],
        'bindTypes'  => [
            \PDO::PARAM_INT
        ],
    ]
);
 With conditionals escaped (alternative syntax)
 Delete¶
 
<?php

$sql     = '
DELETE 
   `co_invoices` 
WHERE
   `inv_id` = 4
';
$success = $connection->execute($sql);
 Raw SQL
 
<?php

$sql     = '
DELETE 
   `co_invoices` 
WHERE
   `inv_id` = ?
';
$success = $connection->execute(
    $sql, 
    [
        4
    ]
);
 Placeholders
 
<?php

$success = $connection->delete(
    'co_invoices',
    'inv_id = ?',
    [
        4,
    ]
);
 Dynamic generation
 Parameters¶
 The Phalcon\Db adapters provide several methods to query rows from tables. The specific SQL syntax of the target database engine is required in this case:
 <?php

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';
$result = $connection->query($sql);
while ($invoice = $result->fetch()) {
   echo $invoice['inv_title'];
}

$invoices = $connection->fetchAll($sql);
foreach ($invoices as $invoice) {
   echo $invoice['inv_title'];
}

$invoice = $connection->fetchOne($sql);
 By default, these calls create arrays with both associative and numeric indexes. For methods like fetchArray(), fetch() and dataSeek() you can change this behavior by using Phalcon\Db\Result::setFetchMode(). For methods like fetchAll() or fetchOne() you can use the $fetchMode argument.
 The fetchMode receives a constant, defining which kind of index is required.
    Constant  Description  
 
   Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_NUM  Return an array with numeric indexes  
  Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_ASSOC  Return an array with associative indexes  
  Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_BOTH  Return an array with both associative and numeric indexes  
  Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_GROUP  Return an array of grouped associative and numeric indexes  
  Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_OBJ  Return an object instead of an array  
  Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_COLUMN  Returns a string for single row or array multiple rows  
 
 
 There are many other constants that can be used similar to PDO:FETCH_* constants
 <?php

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';
$result = $connection->query($sql);

$result->setFetchMode(
    Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_NUM
);

while ($invoice = $result->fetch()) {
   echo $invoice[0];
}

$invoices = $connection->fetchAll($sql, Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_ASSOC);
// or using the previous query() method
$invoices = $result->fetchAll(Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_ASSOC)

foreach ($invoices as $invoice) {
   echo $invoice['inv_title'];
}

$invoice = $connection->fetchOne($sql, Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_ASSOC);
 The query() method returns an instance of Phalcon\Db\Result\Pdo. These objects encapsulate all the functionality related to the returned resultset i.e. traversing, seeking specific records, count etc.
 <?php

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';
$result = $connection->query($sql);

while ($invoice = $result->fetch()) {
   echo $invoice['name'];
}

$result->seek(2);

$invoice = $result->fetch();

echo $result->numRows();
 Binding¶
 Bound parameters are also supported. Although there is a minimal performance impact by using bound parameters, you are highly encouraged to use this methodology to eliminate the possibility of your code being subject to SQL injection attacks. Both string and positional placeholders are supported.
 
<?php

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = ?
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$result = $connection->query(
    $sql,
    [
        4,
    ]
);
 Binding with numeric placeholders
 
<?php

$sql     = "
UPDATE 
    `co_invoices` 
SET 
    `inv_cst_id`= :cstId, 
    `inv_title` = :title
WHERE
    `inv_id` = :id
";
$success = $connection->query(
    $sql,
    [
        'cstId' => 1,
        'title' => 'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
        'id'    => 4,
    ]
);
 Binding with named placeholders
 When using numeric placeholders, you will need to define them as integers i.e. 1 or 2. In this case '1' or '2' are considered strings and not numbers, so the placeholder could not be successfully replaced. With any adapter, data are automatically escaped using PDO Quote. This function takes into account the connection charset, therefore it is recommended to define the correct charset in the connection parameters or your database server configuration, as a wrong charset will produce undesired effects when storing or retrieving data.
 Also, you can pass your parameters directly to the execute or query methods. In this case bound parameters are directly passed to PDO:
 
<?php

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = ?
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$result = $connection->query(
    $sql,
    [
        1 => 4,
    ]
);
 Binding with PDO placeholders
 Typed¶
 Placeholders allowed you to bind parameters to avoid SQL injections:
 <?php

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = :customerId:
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'customerId' => 4,
        ]
    )
;
 However, some database systems require additional actions when using placeholders such as specifying the type of the bound parameter:
 <?php

use Phalcon\Db\Column;

// ...

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = :customerId:
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'customerId' => 4,
        ],
        Column::BIND_PARAM_INT
    )
;
 You can use typed placeholders in your parameters, instead of specifying the bind type in executeQuery():
 <?php

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = {customerId:int}
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'customerId' => 4,
        ],
    )
;

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_title <> {title:str}
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'title' => 'Invoice for ACME Inc',
        ],
    )
;
 You can also omit the type if you do not need to specify it:
 <?php

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id = {customerId}
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'customerId' => 4,
        ],
    )
;
 Typed placeholders are also more powerful since we can now bind a static array without having to pass each element independently as a placeholder:
 <?php

$phql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
WHERE
    inv_cst_id IN ({ids:array})
ORDER BY 
    inv_created_at
';

$invoices = $this
    ->modelsManager
    ->executeQuery(
        $phql,
        [
            'ids' => [1, 3, 5],
        ],
    )
;
 The following types are available:
    Bind Type  Bind Type Constant  Example  
 
   str  Column::BIND_PARAM_STR  {name:str}  
  int  Column::BIND_PARAM_INT  {number:int}  
  double  Column::BIND_PARAM_DECIMAL  {price:double}  
  bool  Column::BIND_PARAM_BOOL  {enabled:bool}  
  blob  Column::BIND_PARAM_BLOB  {image:blob}  
  null  Column::BIND_PARAM_NULL  {exists:null}  
  array  Array of Column::BIND_PARAM_STR  {codes:array}  
  array-str  Array of Column::BIND_PARAM_STR  {names:array-str}  
  array-int  Array of Column::BIND_PARAM_INT  {flags:array-int}  
 
 
 Cast¶
 By default, bound parameters are not cast in the PHP userland to the specified bind types. This option allows you to make Phalcon cast values before binding them with PDO. A common scenario is when passing a string to a LIMIT/OFFSET placeholder:
 <?php

$number = '100';
$phql   = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
LIMIT 
    {number:int}
';

$invoices = $modelsManager->executeQuery(
    $phql,
    [
        'number' => $number,
    ]
);
 This causes the following exception:
 Fatal error: Uncaught exception 'PDOException' with message 
'SQLSTATE[42000]: Syntax error or access violation: 1064. 
You have an error in your SQL syntax; check the manual that 
corresponds to your MySQL server version for the right
syntax to use near ''100'' at line 1' in ....
 This happens because '100' is a string variable. It is easily fixable by casting the value to an integer first:
 <?php

$number = '100';
$phql   = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    Invoices
LIMIT 
    {number:int}
';

$invoices = $modelsManager->executeQuery(
    $phql,
    [
        'number' => (int) $number,
    ]
);
 However, this solution requires that the developer pay special attention to how bound parameters are passed and their types. To make this task easier and avoid unexpected exceptions you can instruct Phalcon to do this casting for you:
 <?php

\Phalcon\Db::setup(
    [
        'forceCasting' => true,
    ]
);
 The following actions are performed according to the bind type specified:
    Bind Type  Action  
 
   Column::BIND_PARAM_STR  Cast the value as a native PHP string  
  Column::BIND_PARAM_INT  Cast the value as a native PHP integer  
  Column::BIND_PARAM_BOOL  Cast the value as a native PHP boolean  
  Column::BIND_PARAM_DECIMAL  Cast the value as a native PHP double  
 
 
 Hydration¶
 Values returned from the database system are always represented as string values by PDO, no matter if the value belongs to a numeric or boolean type column. This happens because some column types cannot be represented with their corresponding PHP native types due to their size limitations. For instance, a BIGINT in MySQL can store large integer numbers that cannot be represented as a 32bit integer in PHP. Because of that, PDO and the ORM by default, make the safe decision of leaving all values as strings.
 You can set up the ORM to automatically cast those types to their corresponding PHP native types:
 <?php

use Phalcon\Mvc\Model;

Model::setup(
    [
        'castOnHydrate' => true,
    ]
);
 This way you can use strict operators or make assumptions about the type of variables:
 <?php

$invoice = Invoices::findFirst();
if (11 === $invoice->inv_id) {
    echo $invoice->inv_title;
}
  NOTE
 If you wish to return the primary key when using the lastInsertId as an integer, you can use the castLastInsertIdToInt => true feature on the model.
 
 Transactions¶
 Working with transactions is supported the same way as with PDO. Using transactions increases performance in most database systems and also ensures data integrity:
 <?php

try {
    $connection->begin();

    $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 1');
    $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 2');
    $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 3');

    $connection->commit();
} catch (Exception $e) {
    $connection->rollback();
}
 In addition to standard transactions, the adapters offer provides built-in support for nested transactions, if the database system used supports them. When you call begin() for a second time a nested transaction is created:
 <?php

try {
    $connection->begin();

    $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 1');

    try {
        $connection->begin();

        $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 2');
        $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 3');

        $connection->commit();
    } catch (Exception $e) {
        $connection->rollback();
    }

    $connection->execute('DELETE `co_invoices` WHERE `inv_id` = 4');

    $connection->commit();
} catch (Exception $e) {
    $connection->rollback();
}
 Events¶
 The adapters also send events to an Events Manager if it is present. If an event returns false it can stop the current operation. The following events are supported:
    Event Name  Triggered  Can stop  
 
   afterQuery  After a query is executed  No  
  beforeQuery  Before a query is executed  Yes  
  beginTransaction  Before a transaction starts  No  
  createSavepoint  Before a savepoint is created  No  
  commitTransaction  Before a transaction is committed  No  
  releaseSavepoint  Before a savepoint is released  No  
  rollbackTransaction  Before a transaction is rolled back  No  
  rollbackSavepoint  Before a savepoint is rolled back  No  
 
 
 If you bind an Events Manager to the database connection, all the events with the type db will be enabled and fired for the relevant listeners.
 <?php

use Phalcon\Events\Manager;
use Phalcon\Db\Adapter\Pdo\Mysql;

$manager = new Manager();

$manager->attach('db', $listener);

$connection = new Mysql(
    [
        'host'     => 'localhost',
        'username' => 'root',
        'password' => 'secret',
        'dbname'   => 'tutorial',
    ]
);

$connection->setEventsManager($manager);
 You can use the power of these events to shield your application from dangerous SQL operations.
 <?php

use Phalcon\Events\Event;

$manager->attach(
    'db:beforeQuery',
    function (Event $event, $connection) {
        $sql = $connection->getSQLStatement();

        if (true === preg_match('/DROP|ALTER/i', $sql)) {
            return false;
        }

        return true;
    }
);
 Profiling¶
 The adapter includes the Phalcon\Db\Profiler component, which is used to analyze the performance of database operations to diagnose performance problems and discover bottlenecks.
 <?php

use Phalcon\Events\Event;
use Phalcon\Events\Manager;
use Phalcon\Db\Profiler;

$manager  = new Manager();
$profiler = new Profiler();

$manager->attach(
    'db',
    function (Event $event, $connection) use ($profiler) {
        if ($event->getType() === 'beforeQuery') {
            $sql = $connection->getSQLStatement();
            $profiler->startProfile($sql);
        }

        if ($event->getType() === 'afterQuery') {
            $profiler->stopProfile();
        }
    }
);

$connection->setEventsManager($manager);

$sql = '
SELECT 
    inv_id,
    inv_title
FROM 
    co_invoices
';
$connection->query($sql);

$profile = $profiler->getLastProfile();

echo 'SQL Statement: ', $profile->getSQLStatement(), PHP_EOL,
     'Start Time: ', $profile->getInitialTime(), PHP_EOL,
     'Final Time: ', $profile->getFinalTime(), PHP_EOL,
     'Total Elapsed Time: ', $profile->getTotalElapsedSeconds(), PHP_EOL;
 The profiler exposes the getProfiles() method, returning an array of Phalcon\Db\Profiler\Item objects. Each object contains relevant statistics, including calculations for seconds, microseconds, and nanoseconds.
 You can also create your profile class based on the Phalcon\Db\Profiler class to record real-time statistics of the statements that are sent to the database:
 <?php

use Phalcon\Events\Manager;
use Phalcon\Db\Profiler;
use Phalcon\Db\Profiler\Item;

class DbProfiler extends Profiler
{
    public function beforeStartProfile(Item $profile)
    {
        echo $profile->getSQLStatement();
    }

    public function afterEndProfile(Item $profile)
    {
        echo $profile->getTotalElapsedSeconds();
    }
}

$manager  = new Manager();
$listener = new DbProfiler();

$manager->attach('db', $listener);
 Logging¶
 Using high-level abstraction components such as the Phalcon\Db adapters to access the database, makes it difficult to understand which statements are sent to the database system. The Phalcon\Logger\Logger component interacts with the Phalcon\Db adapters offering logging capabilities on the database abstraction level.
 <?php

use Phalcon\Events\Event;
use Phalcon\Events\Manager;
use Phalcon\Logger\Logger;
use Phalcon\Logger\Adapter\Stream;

$adapter = new Stream('/storage/logs/queries.log');
$logger  = new Logger(
    'messages',
    [
        'main' => $adapter,
    ]
);

$manager = new Manager();

$manager->attach(
    'db:beforeQuery',
    function (Event $event, $connection) use ($logger) {
        $sql = $connection->getSQLStatement();

        $logger->info(
            sprintf(
                '%s - [%s]',
                $connection->getSQLStatement(),
                json_encode($connection->getSQLVariables())
            )
        );
    }
);

$connection->setEventsManager($manager);

$connection->insert(
    'products',
    [
        'Hot pepper',
        3.50,
    ],
    [
        'name',
        'price',
    ]
);
$connection->insert(
    'co_invoices',
    [
        1,
        'Invoice for ACME Inc.',
    ],
    [
        'inv_cst_id',
        'inv_title', 
    ]
);
 As above, the file /storage/logs/queries.log will contain something like this:
 [2019-12-25 01:02:03][INFO] INSERT INTO `co_invoices` 
    SET (`inv_cst_id`, `inv_title`) 
    VALUES (1, 'Invoice for ACME Inc.')
 The listener will also work with models and their operations. It will also include all bound parameters that the query uses at the end of the logged statement.
 [2019-12-25 01:02:03][INFO] SELECT `co_customers`.`cst_id`, 
    ...,
    FROM `co_customers` 
    WHERE LOWER(`co_customers`.`cst_email`) = :cst_email 
    LIMIT :APL0 - [{"emp_email":"[email protected]","APL0":1}]
 Tables¶
 Describe¶
 The Phalcon\Db adapters also provide methods to retrieve detailed information about tables and views:
 
<?php

$tables = $connection->listTables('phalcon_db');
 Get tables on the phalcon_db database
 
<?php

$exists = $connection->tableExists('co_invoices');
 Check if there is a table called co_invoices in the database.
 
<?php

$fields = $connection->describeColumns('co_invoices');
foreach ($fields as $field) {
    echo 'Column Type: ', $field['Type'];
}
 Print the name and data types of the co_invoices table
 
<?php

$indexes = $connection->describeIndexes('co_invoices');
foreach ($indexes as $index) {
    print_r(
        $index->getColumns()
    );
}
 Print the indexes in the co_invoices table
 
<?php

$references = $connection->describeReferences('co_invoices');
foreach ($references as $reference) {
    print_r(
        $reference->getReferencedColumns()
    );
}
 Print the foreign keys on the 'co_invoices' table
 A table description is very similar to the MySQL DESCRIBE command, it contains the following information:
    Field  Type  Key  Null  
 
   Field's name  Column Type  Is the column part of the primary key or an index?  Does the column allow null values?  
 
 
 Methods to get information about views are also implemented for every supported database system:
 
<?php

$tables = $connection->listViews('phalcon_db');
 Get views on the phalcon_db database
 
<?php

$exists = $connection->viewExists('vw_invoices');
 Check if there is a view vw_invoices in the database
 Create¶
 Different database systems (MySQL, Postgresql, etc.) offer the ability to create, alter or drop tables with the use of commands such as CREATE, ALTER, or DROP. The SQL syntax differs based on which database system is used. Phalcon\Db adapters offer a unified interface to alter tables, without the need to differentiate the SQL syntax based on the target storage system.
 An example of how to create a table is shown below:
 <?php

use \Phalcon\Db\Column as Column;

$connection->createTable(
    'co_invoices',
    null,
    [
       'columns' => [
            new Column(
                'inv_id',
                [
                    'type'          => Column::TYPE_INTEGER,
                    'size'          => 10,
                    'notNull'       => true,
                    'autoIncrement' => true,
                    'primary'       => true,
                ]
            ),
            new Column(
                'inv_cst_id',
                [
                    'type'    => Column::TYPE_INTEGER,
                    'size'    => 11,
                    'notNull' => true,
                ]
            ),
            new Column(
                'inv_title',
                [
                    'type'    => Column::TYPE_VARCHAR,
                    'size'    => 100,
                    'notNull' => true,
                ]
            ),
        ]
    ]
);
 The createTable method accepts an associative array describing the table. Columns are defined with the class Phalcon\Db\Column. The table below shows the options available to define a column:
    Option  Description  Optional  
 
   after  Column must be placed after indicated column  Yes  
  autoIncrement  Set whether this column will be auto-incremented by the database. Only one column in the table can have this attribute.  Yes  
  bind  One of the BIND_TYPE_* constants telling how the column must be bound before saving it  Yes  
  default  Default value (when used with 'notNull' => true).  Yes  
  first  Column must be placed at first position in the column order  Yes  
  notNull  Column can store null values  Yes  
  primary  true if the column is part of the table's primary key  Yes  
  scale  DECIMAL or NUMBER columns maybe have a scale to specify how many decimals should be stored  Yes  
  size  Some types of columns like VARCHAR or INTEGER may have a specific size  Yes  
  type  Column type. Must be a Phalcon\Db\Column constant (see below for a list)  No  
  unsigned  INTEGER columns may be signed or unsigned. This option does not apply to other types of columns  Yes  
 
 
 The following database column types are supported by the adapters:
  Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_INTEGER
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_DATE
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_VARCHAR
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_DECIMAL
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_DATETIME
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_CHAR
 Phalcon\Db\Column::TYPE_TEXT
 
 The associative array passed in createTable() can have the following keys:
    Index  Description  Optional  
 
   columns  An array with columns defined with Phalcon\Db\Column  No  
  indexes  An array with indexes defined with Phalcon\Db\Index  Yes  
  references  An array with references (foreign keys) defined with Phalcon\Db\Reference  Yes  
  options  An array with creation options. (specific to the database system)  Yes  
 
 
 Alter¶
 As your application grows, you might need to alter your database, as part of a refactoring or adding new features. Not all database systems allow you to modify existing columns or add columns between two existing ones. Phalcon\Db is limited by these constraints.
 <?php

use Phalcon\Db\Column as Column;

$connection->addColumn(
    'co_invoices',
    null,
    new Column(
        'inv_status_flag',
        [
            'type'    => Column::TYPE_INTEGER,
            'size'    => 1,
            'notNull' => true,
            'default' => 0,
            'after'   => 'inv_cst_id',
        ]
    )
);


$connection->modifyColumn(
    'co_invoices',
    null,
    new Column(
        'inv_status_flag',
        [
            'type'    => Column::TYPE_INTEGER,
            'size'    => 2,
            'notNull' => true,
        ]
    )
);

$connection->dropColumn(
    'co_invoices',
    null,
    'inv_status_flag'
);
 Drop¶
 To drop an existing table from the current database, use the dropTable method. To drop a table from a custom database, you can use the second parameter to set the database name.
 
<?php

$connection->dropTable('co_invoices');
 Drop the table co_invoices from the active database
 
<?php

$connection->dropTable('co_invoices', 'phalcon_db');
 Drop the table co_invoices from the database phalcon_db

Bind Type	Bind Type Constant	Example
str	`Column::BIND_PARAM_STR`	`{name:str}`
int	`Column::BIND_PARAM_INT`	`{number:int}`
double	`Column::BIND_PARAM_DECIMAL`	`{price:double}`
bool	`Column::BIND_PARAM_BOOL`	`{enabled:bool}`
blob	`Column::BIND_PARAM_BLOB`	`{image:blob}`
null	`Column::BIND_PARAM_NULL`	`{exists:null}`
array	Array of `Column::BIND_PARAM_STR`	`{codes:array}`
array-str	Array of `Column::BIND_PARAM_STR`	`{names:array-str}`
array-int	Array of `Column::BIND_PARAM_INT`	`{flags:array-int}`

Constant	Description
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_NUM`	Return an array with numeric indexes
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_ASSOC`	Return an array with associative indexes
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_BOTH`	Return an array with both associative and numeric indexes
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_GROUP`	Return an array of grouped associative and numeric indexes
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_OBJ`	Return an object instead of an array
`Phalcon\Db\Enum::FETCH_COLUMN`	Returns a string for single row or array multiple rows

Bind Type	Action
`Column::BIND_PARAM_STR`	Cast the value as a native PHP string
`Column::BIND_PARAM_INT`	Cast the value as a native PHP integer
`Column::BIND_PARAM_BOOL`	Cast the value as a native PHP boolean
`Column::BIND_PARAM_DECIMAL`	Cast the value as a native PHP double

Event Name	Triggered	Can stop
`afterQuery`	After a query is executed	No
`beforeQuery`	Before a query is executed	Yes
`beginTransaction`	Before a transaction starts	No
`createSavepoint`	Before a savepoint is created	No
`commitTransaction`	Before a transaction is committed	No
`releaseSavepoint`	Before a savepoint is released	No
`rollbackTransaction`	Before a transaction is rolled back	No
`rollbackSavepoint`	Before a savepoint is rolled back	No

Option	Description	Optional
`after`	Column must be placed after indicated column	Yes
`autoIncrement`	Set whether this column will be auto-incremented by the database. Only one column in the table can have this attribute.	Yes
`bind`	One of the `BIND_TYPE_*` constants telling how the column must be bound before saving it	Yes
`default`	Default value (when used with `'notNull' => true`).	Yes
`first`	Column must be placed at first position in the column order	Yes
`notNull`	Column can store null values	Yes
`primary`	`true` if the column is part of the table's primary key	Yes
`scale`	`DECIMAL` or `NUMBER` columns maybe have a scale to specify how many decimals should be stored	Yes
`size`	Some types of columns like `VARCHAR` or `INTEGER` may have a specific size	Yes
`type`	Column type. Must be a Phalcon\Db\Column constant (see below for a list)	No
`unsigned`	`INTEGER` columns may be `signed` or `unsigned`. This option does not apply to other types of columns	Yes

Index	Description	Optional
`columns`	An array with columns defined with Phalcon\Db\Column	No
`indexes`	An array with indexes defined with Phalcon\Db\Index	Yes
`references`	An array with references (foreign keys) defined with Phalcon\Db\Reference	Yes
`options`	An array with creation options. (specific to the database system)	Yes

Database Abstraction Layer¶

Overview¶

Adapters¶

Constants¶

Methods¶

Custom¶

Escaping¶

Factory¶

newInstance()¶

load()¶

Dialects¶

Built In¶

Custom¶

Connect¶

Create¶

Update¶

Delete¶

Parameters¶

Binding¶

Typed¶

Cast¶

Hydration¶

Transactions¶

Events¶

Profiling¶

Logging¶

Tables¶

Describe¶

Create¶

Alter¶

Drop¶

`newInstance()`¶

`load()`¶